Italy was one of the first countries to open its high-speed rail market to competition when, in 2012, the private operator Italo began competing with the national incumbent Trenitalia's Frecciarossa trains. The reform positioned Italy as a reference point and other European countries have since followed. Spain and France opened their high-speed rail markets in May and December 2021, respectively, with new companies including Iryo and Ouigo in Spain, and Trenitalia France and Renfe in France.
The entry of new players has lowered ticket prices while increasing service frequency. This is a distinguishing feature of the Italian model: between Milan and Rome, there are 164 daily connections — more than five times the number of trains between Paris and London.
