During the centuries before unification, the Italian peninsula was an amalgam of kingdoms, republics, city-states, principalities, duchies and marquisates, the domains of an assortment of male sovereigns, doges and lords of different rank. But a number of women from the Middle Ages (e.g., Matilda of Tuscany) to the 19th century managed to take control of important territories.

In addition to those acting as regent in the absence of their husbands or until male heirs came of age, as in Turin for the house of Savoy (Christine of France and Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Nemours); Mantua (Isabella d’Este) and Ferrara (Eleanor of Naples), some were able to reign in their own right. Here are three of the exquisite towns—Asolo, Lucca and Parma–where women rulers held sway and left a rich cultural legacy. (And not to forget, the famous and controversial Lucrezia Borgia was governor of Spoleto, but just for one year.)